Chapter VII: Changing Paradigms, Assumptions, And Trends
Searches are underway for still newer models of knowledge utilization.
Why? Because some of the old models are not working satisfactorily in today's
environment. Backer, in addressing the 1990 annual meeting of the Society for
Knowledge Utilization and Planned Change, pointed to the assumptions of
complexity, corrigibility, subjectivity, and sociality affecting the next wave
in knowledge utilization studies.
Recognition of complexity in the knowledge utilization process
triggered exploration of new models, theories, and approaches. Recognition of
the shortcomings of scientific knowledge such as its non-finality, its ill
timing for addressing present social problems, and its non-holistic approaches
open the doors to acceptance of more subjective research methods and a belief
in the correctability of science. Finally, recognition of missing parts to the
knowledge utilization process, i.e., the throughput and its social influences
and self-structuring components lay the groundwork for change.
Among the many scholars echoing the need for change are Knorr-Cetina,
Rogers, Ravetz, Patton, Porter, Rossini, Reason and Rowan. Knorr-Cetina
address the convertibility of knowledge. Rogers recognizes the inequality
elements in the diffusion process. Ravetz highlights issues surrounding usable
ignorance. Patton looks at issues programming as an alternative to the
agricultural extension model of knowledge utilization. Porter and Rossini
reinforce the same need as Patton through their discussion of the multiskills
approach to research. Reason and Rowan among others address subjectivity
issues and roles of consumers. Still other authors highlighting the complexity
issues follow the early paradigmatic discussions.
I. USERS REINVENTING, CONVERTING, OR ADAPTING INNOVATIONS
More than a decade ago scholars in knowledge utilization pointed to
the complexity of successful knowledge utilization efforts. They cited
incidents where users modified, accepted only parts of a new technique,
reinvented or converted the innovation to fit their needs. Some even
selectively rejected use. Early models of knowledge utilization had not taken
any of these elements into consideration. (Huberman did include it in his
integrated organization-oriented model under "degrees of transformation vs.
fidelity" and the Concerns Based Adoption Model references the concept as
"refinement".)
Knorr-Cetina (1981:158) argues that knowledge which cannot be
converted to the "currency of a locally defined field of action remain
sociologically ad hoc." Structures such as laws, regulations, knowledge, or
plans and their effects on action must be brought into account when
considering a theory of utilization (Ibid). Failure to consider these has led
to embarrassment as in the busing situation. A theory of knowledge utilization
also needs to recognize that most proposals for change and reform will be
contested, met with open or hidden, immediate or delayed, suspicion and
resistance (Ibid, 159).
The notion of utilization needed here is that of an interactive
process in which social scientists do not, in principle, fare better than
participants themselves: they can only negotiate ...certain steps at a time,
and they will have to design and negotiate further action as the field of
practice restructures itself....Self-determination precludes the social
sciences from effectively engineering social practice, but it by no means
precludes them from modalizing--and from thereby co-producing--the direction
the social process takes. (Ibid, 159-160).
Rice and Rogers (1980:503-4) suggested that diffusion agencies and
adopters view reinvention differently. The former may not favor reinvention
for a couple of reasons: (1) because of beliefs they know better than the
users what form of innovation is best and (2) difficulties in measuring their
performance if the innovation is altered. Adopters perceive reinvention (when
they are aware of having reinvented an innovation) as a natural aspect of
implementation. "Recognition of the existence of reinvention brings into
focus a different view of adoption behavior: instead of simply accepting or
rejecting an innovation, potential adopters are active participants in the
adoption and diffusion process, struggling to give meaning to the new
information as the innovation is applied to the local context" (Ibid, 512).
Crandell and others (1986) in analyzing the conflicting literature on
"adaptation" vs. "as is" adoptions, suggested a need to distinguish among
three entities of the innovation: (1) core components that developers
believed were necessary to achieve the desired results; (2) related components
that enhance vs. assure success; and (3) implementation requirements including
resources (users' knowledge and skills, materials, and equipment).
II. CONSEQUENCES OF INNOVATION
Rogers points out that researchers and change agents have paid little
attention to the consequences of innovations to an individual or a social
system (1983:371). This is partly due to assumptions about positive
consequences of innovations, the methodologies prominent in diffusion studies,
and the difficulty in measurement. He proposed a taxonomy that analyzes
consequences according to: (1) desirable versus undesirable; (2) direct versus
indirect; and (3) anticipated versus unanticipated ones. He also addressed
issues of equality resulting from innovations, illustrating how the effect of
an innovation "was like a huge lever, prying wider the gap between the rich
and the poor" (Ibid, 400).
Strategies which change agents can use for narrowing the gap in
information access about innovations include the following: (1) disseminate
information to lower socioeconomic subaudiences when appropriate and of
interest; (2) tailor information by subaudience characteristics; (3) use
appropriate communication channels for the segments of lower socioeconomic
audiences; (4) organize those with less access (the "Downs") into small groups
focused on innovations; (5) focus on late majority and laggard versus
innovators and early adopters (Ibid, 403-405).
To improve access of "downs" to innovation-evaluation information,
Rogers suggests: identifying opinion leaders, using change agent aides from
among the disadvantaged, activating peer networks about an innovation, and
organizing formal groups among the "Downs" to provide leadership and social
reinforcement in their innovation decision making (Ibid, 406).
To help give "Downs" an equal advantage regarding slack resources for
adopting innovations, Rogers (1983:407-8) recommends giving priority to the
"Downs" in developing innovations, accessing slack resources, and getting
involved in the planning process. He also suggests establishing special
diffusion agencies to work with the "Downs" and putting emphasis on spreading
experience-based ideas (Ibid).
Holzner & Fisher (1981) echo the inequality theme in terms of access
to knowledge resources. "The fact that bodies of knowledge are differentially
anchored in social structure and that therefore access to them is very
unequally distributed is obvious....Equally important is the differential
distribution of knowledge-related resources, skills, and jurisdictions. All
this, no doubt, affects the role of knowledge-related incentives and
interests" (Ibid, 231).
Huberman (1987) identified a wide range of potential impacts at the
primary and secondary level of effect. His impacts on users included
conceptual use (knowledge, certainty, clarity, attitude/opinion changes),
instrumental use (policy, decisions, actions, activities), negatives
(confusion, uncertainty, delay of action, decision, intra-organizational
tensions, conflict), limited or full use, continuity and durability of impact.
At a secondary effect level he addressed for users spread, spillover/spinoff
further collaboration, linkage, attitude toward future research diffusion &
use, organizational effects of the second order, and career effects. The
impact to researchers included conceptual, attitudinal, instrumental, and
costs of quality of the study and other tasks, prestige, credibility, career,
conflicts, stress. Secondary effects to researchers included
spread/spillover, linkages with users, and effects on career.
III. USING SCIENTIFICALLY CREATED IGNORANCE
Science does not have the answers to some of today's questions
(Ravetz, 1987). In time, the assumption goes, science would solve societal
problems and progressively eliminate ignorance. Ravetz argues that science is
creating as much ignorance as it eliminates such as with radioactivity and the
ignorance surrounding how to manage it in all its dangerous manifestations
(Ibid, 100). He recommends, therefore, that we become aware of our ignorance
and use it to avoid disastrous pitfalls such as experienced in the nuclear
power industry.
In applying usable ignorance to a biosphere project and its
multidimensional problems, Ravetz says it is necessary to develop a new
scientific style. Among the precedents not likely to work, he says are: (1)
the gathering of experts occasionally to exhibit their wares and leave
synthesis up to the meeting organizers, (2) multidisciplinary teams focused on
protecting their own futures amid the nominally collaborative effort, and (3)
the task force model that "depends critically on the simplicity of the
defining problem, and on an authoritarian structure of decision and control"
(Ibid, 112).
To address multidimensional (including transnational) complex problems
requires focusing on motivation and technique, Ravetz says. What is needed is
motivation that sparks enough people to see the problem as a professional job
that continues post-project and that employs techniques that enhance ideas and
perspectives. "We may well find ourselves experimenting with techniques of
personal interaction that have been developed for policy formation, but that
have hitherto been considered as irrelevant to the austere task of producing
new knowledge" (Ibid, 113).
IV. ISSUES PROGRAMMING & THE INFORMATION-AGE EXTENSION MODEL
The agricultural extension model so successful in diffusing
agricultural technologies to farmers is in need of change (Patton, 1988). The
old assumptions underlying the model need reassessing in light of present
trends, patterns, and observations. Patton enumerates ten forces pointing to
the need for change in the traditional model: (1) commercialization of
farming, (2) more highly educated farmers who can access, understand, and use
new technologies directly without being dependent on Extension services, (3)
perceptions that technology transfer is contributing to the over-production
problem, (4) globalization of agriculture, (5) bifurcation of farming, (6) the
1980's farm crisis suggesting need for a systems approach, (7) changes in
land-grant universities (e.g., older students, reentry learners, part-time
students, rural residents as well as outreach beyond agriculture), (8) needs
assessment processes, (9) Extension's access to a broadening knowledge base,
and (10) Extension professionals who hold a broad view of Extension's mission
i.e., technology transfer, education, problem solving, development in the
context of issues programming.
Patton (1988) contrasts the disciplinary and department programming of
the extension programs situated in land-grant colleges or universities with a
proposed issues programming approach. Issues programming permits
responsiveness to wide public concern and program evaluation based on the
impact on people affected by the issues (Ibid, 484).
Patton suggests there is an information-age extension model emerging
that is: issues based, involves user clientele, includes flexible structures,
uses multiple communications techniques, has matrix-organizational roles, has
permeable boundaries to link with other university subsystems, and depends
"upon mutual interests, negotiations, and shared values undergirded by the
movement of resources into and out of the system in ways that have a visible
impact on issues of critical public concern" (Ibid, 488-490).
"The Agricultural Extension Model based on technology transfer worked
well in simpler times when American agriculture was a closed system in which
discrete innovations could make a predictable and controlled difference. In
an open-systems world characterized by complex and unpredictable
interdependencies, Extension is developing an organizational structure, a
culture, and a mission that can have an impact on critical issues of the
information age" (Ibid, 490).
Mathisen (1990) echoes the same theme as Patton. Instead of
discipline-specific research he advocates developing problem-solving
communities. Those action-oriented communities would include a mix of
researchers from several disciplines and representatives from the users of
research in society. A well functioning problem-solving community can help
guarantee the quality and relevance of research.
V. MULTISKILLS RESEARCH
While many studies have addressed the need for interdisciplinary,
multidisciplinary, or transdisciplinary research, Porter and Rossini
(1986) make a case for multiskill research. Using the acronym "STRAP" they
suggest an approach to accessing the intellectual skills required for a
research project. 'S' represents substantive areas, 'T' stands for
techniques, and 'R' indicates the range of intellectual skills. 'A' refers to
the administrative variable in terms of the number and relationships among the
organizations involved in the conduct of the research. Finally 'P' reflects
the personnel involved in the project and the permanence of their
relationships. "Characterizing a research project in terms of the mix of the
substantive knowledge areas and techniques involved illuminates more
fundamental structural features than does the characterization in terms of
the mix of disciplines involved" (Ibid, 225).
VI. CHANGING PARADIGMS IN DIFFUSION AND DEVELOPMENT
Rogers (1983), writing from a diffusion of innovations perspective,
identified emerging alternatives to the dominant paradigm of development. The
main elements in the dominant paradigm of development included: (1) economic
growth through industrialization and urbanization, (2) capital-intensive,
labor-saving technology, (3) centralized planning to speed up the process of
development in developing nations, and (4) mainly internal causes of
underdevelopment rather than in trade or external relationships with
industrialized countries. Emerging alternatives to the dominant paradigm
include: (1) equality of distribution, (2) improving the quality of life, (3)
greater emphasis on appropriate technology, (4) self-reliance in development
at the local level, and (5) internal and external causes of underdevelopment
(amounting to a redefinition of the problem by developing nations) (Ibid,
121).
Rogers also stated that the classical diffusion model overlooked
alternatives in the form of various decentralized systems. Centralized
diffusion systems "flow in a one-way, linear direction, top-down from experts
to users" while the "decentralized diffusion systems are client-controlled,
with wide sharing of power and control among the members of the diffusion
system" (Ibid, 346).
VII. THE THIRD WAVE AND THE RISE OF THE PROSUMER
The self-help movement that began in the late sixties and blossomed in
the seventies challenged the professional control of knowledge. That movement
helped demystify some of the professional and scientific knowledge. Self-help
materials and self-help groups mushroomed. With support from members of the
medical profession, previously unavailable medical information, (kept from
patients who couldn't possibly understand it), became available. Consumers
began having access in layperson's terms to books and other resources for
self-testing, self-diagnosis, and self-treatment. Usually those books
emphasized the conditions which dictate seeking professional advice while
opening the door to knowledge areas closeted before. As self-help
organizations grew, consumers became more discerning and critical users of
professional services, oftentimes making potential consumers aware of the
availability of professional resources (Powell, 1987). The growth of such
resources and indigenous services helped reduce the burden of unrealistic
expectations of professional service providers.
The consumerism movement swept the country also and challenged the
quality of products, the right to privacy, and access to information about the
product, themselves or their country. No longer would consumers be passive
purchasers of products and services portrayed as good for them. As they
became more and more educated they identified their rights to quality products
and services. They began speaking out against products and services that
threatened their health and their environment. They sought and won
opportunities to help plan services and products that would, in turn, better
address their needs and wants. Toffler reported (1980) that consumers were
assuming greater and greater roles in the marketplace. Assessment of
consumers' needs and consumer views of proposed product designs are becoming
an integral part of product development. This is not occurring without first
overcoming fear of losing control by inviting consumers into strategy and
policy discussions (Naisbitt, 1982). "I do not think it an oversimplification
to state that producers can only become more successful by learning how better
to satisfy consumers" (Ibid, 178).
Toffler, in noting the trends toward self-help, consumer empowerment,
and more, juxtaposed what he was witnessing nationally against the
agricultural and industrial societies. He concluded that society is moving
into the Third Wave. As readers will recall, in the agricultural society,
consumers produced for themselves and their masters. That he calls the First
Wave. In the Second Wave (under the industrial society) consumers were mostly
separated from producers by the market, the vehicle for exchange of goods and
services. Toffler documented the fact that American society is reintegrating
the consumer and producer in many ways and moving into the Third Wave,
building on the two prior waves. He calls the reintegration of consumer and
producer, "the prosumer":
In short, whether we look at self-help movements,
do-it-yourself trends, or new production technologies, we
find the same shift toward a much closer involvement of the
consumer in production. In such a world, conventional
distinctions between producer and consumer vanish. The
'outsider' becomes an 'insider,' and even more production is
shifted from Sector B of the economy [i.e., comprises all
the production of goods or services for sale or swap through
the exchange network or market] to Sector A where the
prosumer reigns [i.e., where unpaid work is done directly by
people for themselves, their families, or their communities]
(Ibid, 292).
The rise of the prosumer, powered by the soaring cost of many paid
services, by the breakdown of Second Wave service bureaucracies, by the
availability of Third Wave technologies, by the problems of structural
unemployment, and by many other converging factors, leads to new work-styles
and life arrangements (Ibid, 293). In the past decade since Toffler wrote The
Third Wave, the countries of Europe have rearranged themselves, Russia and the
United States have ended the cold war, and the world has gone to war. Many
changes in the worldview are occurring. The prosumer approach is now a
prominent potential for knowledge utilization in the rehabilitation field.
Every citizen could help build the common knowledge base that enhances the
quality of our lives.
VIII. ROLES FOR MAXIMIZING UTILIZATION
As society shifts its worldview so also do roles shift. According to
Sahtouris (1989) the world view of society moved from a religious worldview to
a mechanistic one. At the same time the most prestigious professions shifted
from clergy (keepers of the accumulated knowledge) to law and later to
medicine. As science came into its own status, philosopher-scientists shifted
to research-scientists (those who use the scientific method) and have the
potential for shifting to practitioner-scientists or prosumer-scientists. What
roles should researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and consumers fill in
knowledge production and use? Should these be discrete, supplemental, or
complementary? Is it time for another shift in roles?
A. Capabilities of the general public
Pierce & Lovrich (1982) went behind the scenes to assumptions about
what citizens can and cannot do with respect to policymaking activities. They
studied the distribution and consequences of policy-relevant information among
citizens, activists, legislators, and experts. Among other things, they
demonstrated the capabilities of the general public to form quality
preferences about policy alternatives when provided with appropriate
information.
When the most informed portions of the public are segregated for
separate analysis, their opinion preferences are as organized and as
consistent as those of policymakers and experts. Thus, clearly a substantial
portion of the public is able to find the common dimensions in policy
questions, and a sizable group of citizens are able to articulate opinions
about issues that fall together along this policy dimension (Ibid, 545-546).
The authors also noted that "people holding higher levels of information don't
find their preferences any better represented than do people in the general
public" (Ibid).
B. Citizens/values; scientists/facts
Hammond and Mumpower (1979) believe that citizens and researchers each
have a role to play in social policymaking. Citizens must identify the social
values and researchers must identify the scientific facts. They suggest a
systematic way--the Linkage Approach--to integrate the facts and values. They
illustrated the approach in terms of the handgun ammunition issues facing the
Denver city government and local police department. Citizens clarified the
values, i.e., what ought to be, related to the issue. For example, which is
most important: minimizing injury? maximizing stopping effectiveness? or
minimizing threat to bystanders? Citizens also identified trade offs they were
willing to make among the three dimensions if no ammunition could satisfy the
three criteria. Ballistic experts, on the other hand, provided the facts, the
technical information regarding each kind of bullet. A comparison of values
and facts netted a successful resolution of the problem. Hammond and Mumpower
suggest this delineation of roles can be applied in other research endeavors.
C. Consumers as research designers & producers
The authors of Human Inquiry (Reason & Rowan, 1985) argue that
consumers should be an integral part of the research from the design,
including the questions to be studied and the methods of study, to the
application of the design and the subsequent findings. Keeping consumers in
the subject status alienates, degrades, and further distances consumers, they
say. Instead of looking at the wide range of consumers' behaviors researchers
look only at one small segment of that range. Using consumers as subjects puts
them in a lower power status to researchers. In other words, power between
researchers and consumers needs to be balanced in order to lead to outcomes
more useful to both groups.
Researchers looking at forty years of social problem research also
pointed to the need for consumers to be involved early in the research process
and for the totality rather than only the parts of the picture to be studied
(Gregg, et al, 1979). They cited examples of homosexuals, women, Black
Americans, and "authoritarian personalities" who challenged the premises,
nature, or focus of the research conducted on their respective populations.
Gay people said that researchers were overlooking topics of great importance
to them such as "the consequences of self-disclosure, the dynamics of gay
relationships, and the development of positive identities" (Ibid, 36). Women
challenged the victim-blaming focus taken in research on rape. Cultural values
supporting male aggressiveness, etc. were being overlooked (Ibid, 37). Blacks
sought to be studied with respect and sensitivity to the implications of the
data (Ibid, 52). Those identified as having an authoritarian personality
challenged the research (Ibid, 52). The authors believe, "Where those who
suffer from social problems have power to influence how they are studied,
social science is better off for it" (Ibid).
In government, i.e., the legislative and regulatory arena, consumers
are playing more significant roles. They have helped evaluate present
practices and presented testimony before Congress on the effects of services
and products they have received (or failed to receive). They have offered
possible solutions to the problems they faced with service delivery and
suggested reallocation of resources to better address their needs. Their
efforts, sometimes combined with efforts of other advocates, have led to major
changes in the laws and regulations that govern society and in some instances
affected research priorities.
D. Practitioners as planners and developers
Crandell and others (1986) summarized literature related to the
participation of teachers in the planning and development process for school
improvement. They cited Huberman's classroom press problems: press for
immediacy and concreteness, for multidimensionality and simultaneity, for
adapting to ever-changing conditions, and for personal involvement with
students (Ibid, 28). Effects on teachers of such pressures include focusing
on the short term, isolation from other adults, depleting energy by day's end,
and rare reflection about teaching. "Since the requisite conditions for
ensuring success are rarely present, teacher involvement in innovation
development should be viewed cautiously; if it is chosen, it should be
adequately supported" (Ibid, 30). Supports include "additional resources,
primarily release time during the regular school day, access to outside
'experts'--either from within the district or outside--who can help them with
the development process. "The school or district should not be in a hurry for
change; local teacher development is a time-consuming process that if rushed
is likely to fail" (Ibid, 29).
Louis and others (cited in Crandell et al, 1986:34) "found a
relationship between broad teacher participation and successful change, but
only at the point of affirming the choice of innovations." Crandell and others
cited studies linking teacher satisfaction with the degree of participation,
the phase of planning, the adequacy of time available to plan, and the degree
of congruence between desired and actual participation. Commitment increases,
they say, as teachers "simultaneously see themselves master the practice and
perceive that their students are doing better" (Ibid, 34).
Cooley and Bickel present case evidence to document the importance of
client-oriented research. In their decision-oriented educational research
approach (1985 cited in Patton, 1986:56), the intended user is integrated into
the process at all stages through ongoing dialogue between the researcher and
the client.
In 1904 John Dewey advocated developing educators who would actively
study the teaching/learning processes (cited in Crandell et al, 1986:44). Some
scholars today suggest that the emphasis should not be placed on
institutionalizing innovations but rather on renewal within the context of the
teaching occupation (Lortie and Huberman cited in Crandell et al, 1986:44).
IX. STRUCTURES FOR MAXIMIZING KNOWLEDGE UTILIZATION
Organizational structures have been changing (Naisbitt, 1982;
Weisbord, 1987). No longer are the chains of command so tall and so tightly
linked. Hierarchies have flattened. Middle and top managers are fewer.
Blue-collar and white-collar work have less distinctions. Information
technology, diversity, networking, and a world marketplace have entered the
scene and altered organizational futures. Futures conferences (also referred
to as search conferences or visioning) have become more prominent among
organizations. "The conference fully embodies third-wave managing and
consulting--getting the whole system in the room, focusing on the future,
having people do the work themselves" (Weisbord, 1987:287).
From an organizational change perspective, roles too often may be
ambiguous and lead to stress (Growthway, 1990). They emphasize the importance
of organizations differentiating among roles while still involving all
parties in a participatory way. They identified four major roles within the
power cycle: evaluators, recommenders, deciders, and implementers. Evaluators
assess the state of the art while recommenders look at future possibilities.
Deciders determine direction while implementers take the necessary action.
All roles are important and leaders who share power and control with their
followers produce the desired results more often than those who do not.
Going beyond intraorganizational structures to inter- organizational
structures, there is a trend toward the creation of alliances, partnerships,
collaborative efforts. Private firms, industries, universities, state
governments, and the federal government are working together on research and
development (National Academy of Science, 1986; Fusfeld and Haklisch, 1987
cited in Feller, 1987:243). Even competitors, in some instances, are joining
forces to assure the available funds come their way. The Ben Franklin
Partnership Program in Pennsylvania, as an example, unites state government,
universities, and industries in research and demonstration activities. The
advantages of such linkages has been described by Feller:
The search for new alliances in selected fields has
increased not only because of the advent of new scientific
discoveries, but also because of the possibilities such
discoveries create in compressing the stages of discovery,
application, and development. In practice, this means the
organizational and/or contractual integration of discovery
with application and development. As Panem (1984:75) has
noted for biotechnology, use of genetic engineering
techniques "allows the work of all three phases to be done
at the same work site" (Feller, 1987:245).
Kilmann (1981) identified several organizational designs--collateral,
interdependency, differentiation, and integration--that could be more wisely
used to enhance the knowledge utilization process. He suggests beginning with
the collateral organization design (similar to the matrix structure in some
organizations) that is superimposed over the formal organizational structure.
The collateral design addresses longer-term problems and objectives using more
loosely structured, information-seeking, representatives from throughout the
organization. Authority and reward systems follow the formalizing of this
collateral design.
Next Kilmann chooses an interdependency design: pooled, sequential, or
reciprocal. The pooled form requires some coordination, planning, scheduling,
and communicating regarding separate tasks. The sequenced form requires one
group to complete the tasks before the other groups can respectively do their
parts. The reciprocal form requires frequent or continuous interaction. Then
differentiate the subunits to be involved according to the best fit between
that unit and the characteristics of its task environment. That fit may mean a
loose, dynamic, changing structure or a more controlled and less flexible one
according to the nature of the tasks for that subunit of an organization.
Finally, incorporate integration designs that coordinate the subunits in a way
that they can function better as a whole. Kilman says that research studies
are needed to test the concepts and principles for differing, yet
complementary, organizational designs.
X. BEYOND PARADIGMS TO METHODOLOGICAL APPROPRIATENESS
Using a program evaluation perspective, Patton traced the contrasting
paradigms in research methodology. Those included the naturalistic and
experimental inquiry options, the deductive and inductive approaches,
objectivity and subjectivity amid the need for fairness and balance, the
continuum of distance from versus closeness to the program, variables versus
wholes, and uniformity or diversity. He showed the trend towards greater
methodological tolerance. He also pointed out that well known scholars of
measurement and experimental design, Cronbach and Campbell, had publicly
endorsed qualitative studies. "The focus is now on methodological
appropriateness rather than orthodoxy, methodological creativity rather than
rigid adherence to a paradigm, and methodological flexibility rather than
following a narrow set of rules. The methodological dragon has been tamed"
(Patton, 1986:213).
In the taming of the dragon, Patton says, the emphases on threats to
data quality or validity have been expanded to a consideration of the threats
to utility. His overview of validity threats include but are not limited
to--maturation, societal changes, reactions to measurement and evaluation,
experimental mortality--with naturalistic approaches coming off at least as
well as experimental approaches in the validity issue. "The key point is that
it is impossible to identify in the abstract and in advance all of the
trade-offs involved in balancing concerns for validity, reliability, utility,
feasibility, propriety, and accuracy that will need to be considered in any
particular situation" (Ibid, 241).
Patton's list of threats to utility of program evalua tion results
include the following:
--failure to focus on intended use by intended users
--inadequate involvement of primary intended users in making methods
decisions;
--focusing on unimportant issues--low relevance
--inappropriate methods and measures given stakeholder questions and
information needs
--poor stakeholder understanding of the evaluation generally and
findings specifically
--low stakeholder belief and trust in the evaluation process and
findings
--failure to design the evaluation to fit the context and situation
--low face validity
--unbalanced data collection and reporting
--perceptions that the evaluation is unfair
--low evaluator credibility
--political naivete
--failure to keep stakeholders adequately informed and involved
along the way as design alterations are necessary (Patton, 1986:242).
Dunn's list of threats to usable knowledge include misjudged or
misplaced cogency, misplaced or untimely relevance, misplaced adequacy,
subjectivity, reflexivity, misclassification, misrepresentation,
perspectivity, objectivity, spuriousness, misplaced comparison,
counterauthentication, substantiality, misplaced reflexivity (Dunn, 1982:
318-321). He classifies truth tests "according to the general and specific
functions they perform in knowledge transactions" (Ibid, 314). Those functions
include:
(1) empirico-analytic: knowledge adequacy is certified by
assumptions about the logical consistency of axioms, laws,
propositions, hypotheses, or principles and/or their
correspondence to empirically observed regularities; (2)
interpretive: knowledge adequacy is certified by assumptions
about the action-motivating significance of purposes,
intentions, reasons, or motivations; (3) pragmatic:
knowledge adequacy is certified by assumptions about the
effectiveness of past experiences in producing desired
outcomes in parallel contexts; (4) authoritative: knowledge
adequacy is certified by assumptions about the achieved or
ascribed status of knowledge producers, the orthodoxy of
knowledge, or the use of approved methods; and (5) critical:
knowledge adequacy is certified by assumptions about the
consequences of such knowledge in emancipating individuals
and collectivities from unexamined or tacit beliefs that
impeded the realization of human potential (Ibid, 315).
Breakdowns of those five classifications encompass:
(1) empirico-analytic: causal, quasi-causal, typological,
representational, and analogical; (2) interpretive:
teleological and quasi-teleological; (3) pragmatic: clinical
and comparative; (4) authoritative: personal, ideological,
ethical, and methodical; (5) critical: ontological and
emancipatory (Ibid, 316-317).
XI. OTHER METHODOLOGICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR KU
Other related methodological recommendations address
utilization-focused research, case studies, analytically-based studies, and
integrative use studies.
A. Utilization focused evaluation research
Rafter (1984) offers three guidelines for designing evaluation
research to maximize utilization:
1. Evaluators should employ a contingent strategy in designing
evaluation research by selecting from among a range of choices the approach
best suited to the utilization desired. [USE FOCUSED RESEARCH DESIGNS]
2. In implementing evaluation research, equal attention should be paid to
how a program works as to the outcomes of a program. [PROCESS AND OUTCOMES]
3. In addition to traditional research skills, evaluators need
'non-standard' group process skills.
[FACILITATION SKILLS FOR RESEARCHERS] (Ibid,165-185).
B. Case studies
Yin, Bateman, & Moore (1985:249-260) studied 53 cases of
organizational innovation. They suggested that future case studies could
improve utilization if they included the following: "First, reflect at least
five concerns--problem definition, research design, nature of the evidence,
analysis and interpretation, and manner of presentation. Second,...clearly
establish whether the purpose of a case study is to contribute to knowledge
about practice or about theory (or both). Third,...define the innovation
process being studied in clear, operational terms. Fourth, by inference, peer
reviews of case studies should consider using these guidelines...."(Ibid,
258).
C. Use of analytically based studies
Mandell and Sauter (1984:145-164) identified features of the ideal
study of the use of analytically based information in public agencies. Those
features are:
--a sample that is not limited to units with which the
researcher has had previous contact, but instead is
representative in terms of sectors, organizations within
those sectors, and levels within those organizations.
--estimates of the effects of various independent variables
on use that are obtained by measuring use and each
independent variable and then applying appropriate
correlational techniques to these measures rather than by
asking respondents directly to specify factors affecting
use;
--measures of use that are explicitly defined and are
capable of detecting uses of ABI that are less dramatic than
those recognized in 'decisionistic' formulations as well as
uses that may offend our notions of 'correct' uses of
ABI...;
--utilization-type...measures of use, if employed, that are
based upon longitudinal assessments--through interview
and/or unobtrusive data--of variables such as the beliefs
and attitudes of relevant individuals rather than on
respondents' direct assessments of the extent to which these
were affected by ABI;
--incorporation of independent variables that indicate
which, if any, strategies to increase the use of ABI were
employed in each case observed;
--application of sampling and data analysis techniques that
aid in detecting interactions among independent variables
(Mandell & Sauter, 1984:161).
D. Method changes for integrative use studies
Bingham, Freeman, and Felbinger (1984), under a National Science
Foundation grant, studied innovation adoption. So many disclaimers regarding
the generalizability of innovation research led them to empirically evaluate
Downs and Mohr's approach to innovation research. That approach stemmed from a
belief that research findings are unstable for complex organizations and that
a theory of innovation cannot be developed. However, innovation research
studies could lead to an integrative theory if seven methodological changes
occurred. Those changes related to primary and secondary attributes of
innovations, interactive models, innovation-decision design for analysis,
avoiding aggregate scoring for innovations on organizations involved with
multiple innovation studies, distinguishing between extent and time of
adoption, and studying adoptability by using many innovations in one
organization or by using the innovation-decision design (Downs & Mohr,
1976:712-713 in Bingham et al, 1984).
XII. TAXONOMIC VIEW
Arnold Reisman (1989) presents a taxonomic view of technology transfer
that has applicability to knowledge utilization and the rehabilitation field.
His taxonomy, i.e., classification system, looks at transfers between and
among: scientific disciplines, professions (input-oriented, output-oriented,
and market-oriented), industries, economic sectors, geographic regions, and
societies/countries. The six entities may be origins or destinations of
transfers. Hierarchically, the disciplines, professions, and industries form
the primary level of transfer. Sectors and regions compose the secondary
level, and countries the tertiary level. His taxonomic view includes
crossovers among disciplines, professions, and industries amid boundaries:
sectors, regions, national, and multi-national.
"Mapping the universe of technology transfers would not be complete
without at least mentioning the dichotomy between transfers that are legal,
ethical, and moral and those which fall short in any of the above. This opens
up the entire area of patent and copyright laws, international and industrial
intelligence and counter-intelligence, and the various caveats and admonitions
addressing issues of ethics, as well as the various technologies to prevent
unauthorized transfers" (Ibid, 35).
XIII. OTHER
In critiquing the limits of research use by policy-makers Weiss (1986)
says: "Nor does any one study, or even any body of research, encompass all the
variables that decision makers have to attend to--such as public reaction,
financial costs, social costs, instability, political advantage. Social
scientists usually ignore factors such as these--they are not built into the
model" (Ibid, 277).
SUMMARY:
This chapter has documented a number of reasons for changing the
underlying utilization paradigm with its two-communities mindset. Users are
helping produce research as well as adapting and converting innovations. Past
diffusion practices have increased inequality. Scientific knowledge has gaps
and adds areas of ignorance. Societies are more open now; and consumers and
producers are overlapping roles in other areas of society. Roles and
structures are shifting. Technology is advancing information access that leads
to knowledge and concomitant power. There is greater methodological tolerance
and recognition of the need for issues programming and multiskills research.
Interdependency, continual communication, equality, and public participation
in problem identity and research priority setting are consistent themes. While
some of these recommended directions are well entrenched in the rehabilitation
field already, other aspects are not.
A LOOK AHEAD:
The prosumer approach described in the next chapter, if implemented,
can lead to improved outcomes for people with disabilities. Details of the
approach, roles of all stakeholders in the rehabilitation field, and an
implementation plan follow.
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